Has Religion Preserved the Jews?

Has Religion Preserved the Jews?

Yigal Bin-Nun

Official history asserts that the Jewish people have existed continuously from the time of Abraham to the present day, thanks to religion, which is believed to have preserved them. However, this categorical assertion is more mythical than historical, and like all national narratives, it sometimes diverges from historical reality. In fact, Judaism has not only preserved Israel—it has also profoundly transformed it. It is essential to remember that Judaism, as we know it today, did not exist in the ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judah.

In antiquity, religions in the modern sense of the term did not exist; rather, there were rituals involving blood sacrifices and offerings presented to deities on altars within temples. These deities were perceived as beings with human-like characteristics. The temple was considered the dwelling place of Yahweh, and sacrifices, along with offerings, were meant to nourish him. Thus, Yahweh was seen as an entity capable of experiencing human emotions such as anger, jealousy, and compassion, as well as attributes such as benevolence, forgiveness, and punishment.

It is difficult to imagine a temple from that period without divine statues or imposing altars. The model of the Temple of Jerusalem displayed at the Israel Museum can therefore be misleading. During the Roman era, the temple was far from being a serene place of worship. It more closely resembled a vast, noisy stable filled with sheep and cattle—a veritable slaughterhouse where animals bellowed before being sacrificed. The scent of grilled meat mingled with the fumes of incense, while streams of blood flowed through drainage channels into the Kidron Valley. The house of Yahweh in ancient Judea was thus far removed from the image of a spiritual sanctuary dedicated to an abstract deity.

A religious event that occurred between the 14th and 8th millennia BCE illustrates humanity’s fundamental need to worship a deity and engage in ritual practice. This is the archaeological site of Göbekli Tepe, located in southern Turkey near the Syrian border. This site contains the earliest known temple in human history, whose ruins remain visible today. It includes more than 300 monumental stelae, measuring between three and five meters in height, arranged in about twenty circular structures. Built several millennia before Stonehenge and the Egyptian pyramids, this temple suggests that spirituality may have been developing at a time when humans still lived as hunter-gatherers. Thus, the need for divinity and worship preceded the emergence of sedentary societies: long before the advent of agriculture and animal domestication, a religious revolution was already underway.

Priests established strict rules governing sacrifices, allowing deities to forgive the sins of the faithful and grant them favor. However, the prophets, dissatisfied with this “spiritual transaction,” rejected and fiercely criticized it. They proposed replacing sacrifices with justice and exemplary moral behavior. Religions, as we understand them today, only truly emerged with the gradual disappearance of sacrificial cults in the ancient world. In Israel, these practices ended with the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem by Titus, following the revolt against Rome. Thus, worship itself does not constitute a religion. As a result, while worship is primarily based on offerings and sacrifices, religion depends on a canonical text. Deprived of its Temple and priests, Jewish tradition gradually transformed the Torah into a canonical corpus, while prayers took the place of sacrifices.

In antiquity, the concept of religion was significantly different from what we attribute to it today. While ancient worship was based on concrete rituals and gestures, religion gradually structured itself around principles of faith recorded in sacred texts. In the ancient kingdoms of the Near East, in Greece, and in the Roman world, polytheistic worship prevailed. It was often centered around a principal god placed at the top of a pantheon of secondary deities. At the same time, religious syncretism helped unify beliefs by merging the identities of gods under a primary entity.

By contrast, monotheistic religions such as Christianity and Islam have often been responsible for the deaths of millions throughout history, seeking to impose their faith by force, even upon peoples who already shared a belief in a single God. Furthermore, many believers perished in the name of religious orthodoxy, victims of doctrinal differences deemed heretical. In many cases, it can be argued that these religions—including Judaism—are not so much based on moral principles as on absolute obedience to the deity and its representatives.

To understand the texts of the Bible as their authors intended, it is imperative to free ourselves from the prejudices that obscure our vision, particularly by shedding the weight of Talmudic authority. This is no easy task, as our culture is steeped in legends, narratives, hymns, prayers, proverbs, and late customs that distort our reading of ancient texts.

It is difficult for us to imagine that all the kings of Israel and Judah, as well as the prophets and priests, did not observe certain traditions that are considered essential today: they were not circumcised, did not wear phylacteries, did not wrap themselves in a tallit (prayer shawl), did not kiss mezuzot, and did not fast on Yom Kippur. They consumed meat with milk without scruple, and their wives did not cover their heads. At that time, abstaining from pork was more of a geographical constraint than an absolute religious prohibition: the Israelites, living in the hills, did not raise pigs, whereas the Sidonians and Philistines, settled in the coastal plains, consumed them.

Moreover, if the sons of Moses, Judah, Jacob, Joseph, David, or Solomon were to arrive in Israel today, the rabbinate would not recognize them as Jews, since they were born to foreign women. According to the Bible, ethnic affiliation was determined by the father, unlike the Sages of the Talmud, who decreed that Jewish religious identity is now transmitted through the mother, regardless of individual beliefs.

Our world presents monotheism apologetically as superior to polytheism, the latter often being dismissed under the label of paganism. In the eyes of monotheistic religions, polytheism is merely a primitive remnant, characteristic of ancient peoples or supposedly “backward” civilizations. This perspective was reinforced from the 16th century onward in Europe, within a context where colonial Christianity sought to justify the domination of the New Worlds. The idea of monotheism’s superiority thus served as an ideological tool to legitimize European conquests in America, Africa, and East Asia. One may even question whether the existence of a single God, as claimed by each religion, is preferable to a world where each people possessed its own divine pantheon. In what way would “mono-Yahwism” be superior to Yahweh and his consort Asherah?

The study of Greco-Roman culture and the analysis of biblical texts reveal that ancient empires did not impose exclusive worship of a single deity. Similarly, in the Bible, the worship of a national god did not preclude the recognition of other deities (El, Yahweh, Baal, Asherah, Astarte, Dagon, Tammuz, Shamash, the Queen of Heaven, and the Heavenly Host). Generally, great empires honored numerous gods, while smaller kingdoms had few, or even just one, such as Kemosh (Moab), Qos (Edom), and Milkom (Ammon)—a form of proto-monotheism. Thus, the Judaism we know today has no equivalent in biblical texts. No biblical book presents an abstract, singular God governing the entire world while denying the existence of other deities. This concept gradually developed under the influence of Persian culture, which then dominated the Near East, and during the Greco-Roman period. Thus, the idea of an “El Elyon” (Supreme God) emerged, merging the attributes of numerous local deities.

The perception of divinity in antiquity differed profoundly from our current understanding. It was based on a principle of coexistence: each people had its own gods and recognized those of others without denying them. No kingdom sought to impose its pantheon on another. At most, a kingdom might claim the supremacy of its gods over those of rival peoples. The harmful actions attributed to deities were, in reality, the deeds of their representatives. These representatives shaped the image of the gods according to their own ambitions, making divinity an instrument of their power. The idea of divine providence directly intervening in individuals’ lives is a human construct, reflecting the desire to control beliefs and behaviors. Thus, divinity punishes not by virtue of transcendent justice, but according to the laws imposed by those who created it. The issue, therefore, does not lie so much in the existence or non-existence of divinity, but in the attributes ascribed to it and the way religious and political authorities use it—particularly their intent to impose a single form of worship on those who refuse to adhere.

The Sages of the Talmud condemned corruption within the priestly aristocracy, but they also neglected the immense wealth of human civilization contained in a library of over 500 works in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, some of which were entirely unknown to them. After the disappearance of the priesthood following the destruction of the Temple, they lost interest in most of their rivals’ writings, some of which were only preserved thanks to their translation by Christian communities. It was only with the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls from 1948 onward that some of these losses were partially compensated.

In reality, these sages developed a new religion suited to the Jewish minority living among foreigners to their faith. The biblical laws, which had become inapplicable in a world without sacrifices, were set aside. They then created the “Oral Torah” to legitimize these new rules, claiming that it had been revealed to Moses at Sinai alongside the Written Torah, thereby granting both corpora equivalent authority. They distanced themselves from ancient traditions, adapting them to their time according to their own understanding. In fact, this new religion largely supplanted the Bible in Judaism. Although they abandoned blood sacrifices, they struggled to renounce certain practices, such as circumcision, which had long been associated with popular beliefs aimed at warding off evil spirits and demons.

In the absence of kings, the Sages elevated the role of the tzaddik (the Just One) above divinity itself. They established a hierarchy where “the Just One decrees, and the Holy One, blessed be He, executes.” In other words, God became a mere instrument serving the rabbi. Taking this logic even further, they asserted: “The Holy One, blessed be He, decides, and the Just One annuls.” The instructive story of the “oven of Aknai” in the Talmud perfectly illustrates this idea: in it, God abdicates before the rabbis, declaring himself: “You have defeated me, my children.” In other words, it is not the rabbis who serve God, but rather God who carries out the will of the rabbis.

Atheism and secularism are concepts derived from the semantic field of religion. Stating “I do not believe in God” or “God does not exist” still falls within religious discourse. For a secular individual, the question of divine existence remains essential, as it has structured human thought throughout history. In reality, God exists as a concept, much like the soul, consciousness, spirit, love, jealousy, or hatred. These abstract notions do not require scientific proof, and we do not strive to deny their existence. So why attempt to prove the non-existence of God?

An impressive Jewish diaspora emerged with the founding of Alexandria in 332 BCE. As early as the 2nd century BCE, Judeans and Israelites migrated to new cultural centers such as Cyrene, Carthage, and Antioch. The diversity of this community, whose writings were translated into Greek, captivated the intellectual elites of the Hellenistic-Roman Empire. This literary wealth, composed of hundreds of works, fascinated many Hellenes, to the extent that approximately 10% of the Roman Empire’s population—and 15% in its eastern part—individually joined this community. From the 2nd century BCE, Hellenes began joining this community individually, leading to a massive influx of non-Judean adherents. As a result, today’s Jews do not necessarily descend from the populations of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Thus, a multiethnic “Jewish people” was born, founded as much on customs and traditions as on an abundant literary production.

The destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the diaspora revolts in the 2nd century, and the translation of the Bible into Greek marked a turning point. From then on, adherence to Judaism no longer required Judean ancestry. In the Hellenistic-Roman world, this evolution gradually transformed an ethnic and territorial identity into a universal religion, which eventually prevailed with Christianity. The Roman-Byzantine Empire did not become definitively Monophysite Christian until the 6th century under Emperor Justinian, contrary to the widespread belief that this occurred under Constantine. Until then, antiquity retained its polytheistic character.

Around the 10th century, the evolution of Oral Law into a written form gave rise to monumental literature, including the Mishnah and the Talmud, which gradually became dominant within the Jewish community. Initially rejected by the majority, this law, primarily of Babylonian origin, was not widely accepted until the 12th century. However, it provoked strong opposition among Hellenistic communities dispersed after the diaspora revolt (115–117 CE). Not only had these communities abandoned biblical laws, but the Sages also forged an entirely new theology, foreign to the Bible. This ever-evolving halakha culminated in the 16th century with the writing of the “Shulchan Aruch” (the Set Table), which definitively codified the commandments governing religious Jewish life.

In the modern era, Jews have formed a transnational nation, largely detached from religion. Their common origin is based on a presumed genetic ancestry, contradicting historical knowledge. Today, Rabbinic Judaism, primarily founded on the Oral Torah, dominates in Israel and the Jewish world. Thus, from a historical perspective, Judaism is in constant transformation. While these evolutions sometimes occur informally, halakha undergoes profound changes under the influence of social transformations. Many restrictions have been imposed to accentuate the separation between religious Jews and their secular environment. Conversely, other Jewish communities have adopted the principle that the law of the land takes precedence over halakha in cases of conflict.

The creation of the Jewish state has posed one of the most crucial challenges in the history of halakha. One could argue that it has revealed its limitations when applied within the Jewish state itself. Ironically, Judaism seems ill-suited to the existence of a Jewish state. The Jewish religion has never faced such a profound theological crisis, calling its foundations into question. It struggles to adjust to the reality of the Jewish state, as rabbis have failed to adapt obsolete commandments that sometimes contradict contemporary moral values and societal evolution. Rather than confronting these challenges, they have withdrawn behind the walls of religious law, multiplying restrictions to minimize the impact of ideological upheavals. Where great spiritual movements once gave Judaism its vitality, ritualistic rabbinism has taken hold, gradually sinking into mysticism, messianism, and the cynical exploitation of the most vulnerable populations.

Today, Israeli society is fragmented into communities that largely live in isolation from one another. After more than 70 years of sovereign existence and over a century of Zionist ideology and colonization, a social apartheid has emerged between the religious and secular populations. It is unthinkable to see a religious girl walking alongside a secular classmate, whereas such an image remains common in Muslim society. This separation echoes history: the first Christians distanced themselves from Jews precisely because they could not share meals with them.

Today, Israeli Judaism has reached an alarming spiritual and moral level. Above all, it is dominated by religious politicians who exploit beliefs, rituals, and superstition for financial gain, targeting the most disadvantaged populations. The survival of Judaism in a post-ethnic world will depend on its ability to reform from within. Its rabbis must, on their own initiative, renounce commandments emptied of all spiritual substance.

After the failure of the great ideologies of the 1970s, global critical thought is also wavering in the face of rising orthodoxies. Liberalism, humanism, and scientific progress struggle to address contemporary challenges and to form an effective bulwark against racism and violence. As long as the debate remains centered on religious coercion, no fundamental evolution of Judaism will take place. It is not impossible that the religious world may collapse under its own weight, without external intervention. Many rightly argue that a Jewish state cannot be fully democratic, just as a democratic state cannot be intrinsically Jewish. As paradoxical as it may seem, a Judaism historically rooted in exile appears incompatible with state sovereignty, just as a sovereign state struggles to claim a Jewish identity without internal contradictions.