Discrimination Against Chinese in America & The Christian Response Part 1

May is Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) Heritage Month—a timely occasion to reflect deeply on the experiences of Asian communities in America, including their remarkable resilience in the face of profound adversity. Among these communities, Chinese immigrants and Chinese Americans have endured some of the most persistent, systemic, and historically documented discrimination. Exploring this painful yet vital history allows us to better understand how racial prejudice, economic anxieties, xenophobic attitudes, and religious beliefs intersected to justify exclusion and marginalization. By reviewing the historical discrimination faced by Chinese Americans, we gain insights critical to understanding ongoing racial and religious dynamics in America. This essay is the first of a two-part series; the second essay will specifically explore the biblical justifications historically employed by Christians to rationalize discriminatory treatment against Chinese immigrants and Chinese Americans.

Historical Overview of Discrimination Against Chinese Americans

Discrimination against Chinese immigrants and Chinese Americans has persistently marked American history, deeply shaped by racial prejudice, economic fears, xenophobic sentiments, and religious justifications.

I. Early Immigration and Initial Hostility (1840s–1860s)
Chinese immigration significantly increased during the California Gold Rush (1848–1855), primarily from Guangdong Province, as immigrants sought economic opportunities. Initially welcomed as cheap labor, they quickly became targets of hostility.

• Foreign Miners’ Tax (1852): Imposed specifically to target Chinese miners, forcing them to pay additional taxes, thus economically marginalizing them.

• Violence and Exclusion: Chinese immigrants faced routine violence, theft, and exclusion without legal protection. Many white Americans justified their actions by labeling Chinese workers as economic threats who undermined wages and jobs for white laborers.

These early forms of hostility set the foundation for widespread xenophobia that would continue for decades.

II. Railroad Construction and Anti-Chinese Sentiment (1860s–1880s)
Thousands of Chinese laborers significantly contributed to building the Transcontinental Railroad, completed in 1869. Despite their essential labor, they were systematically exploited, receiving lower wages and enduring harsh, dangerous conditions.

• Dangerous Work Conditions: Assigned the most perilous tasks, such as using explosives to clear tunnels, many died or suffered severe injuries without proper recognition or compensation.

• Anti-Chinese Riots: Events such as the Los Angeles Chinese Massacre (1871), which resulted in the lynching of 17 Chinese residents, and the Rock Springs Massacre (1885), during which Chinese miners were violently attacked and expelled, revealed the depth of racial animosity driven by fears of economic competition.

Despite their crucial contributions, resentment intensified into explicit racism, culminating in systematic legal exclusion.

III. Legal Exclusion and Institutionalized Racism (1882–1943)
Anti-Chinese sentiment hardened into institutionalized racism through federal legislation, marking one of the darkest periods for Asian immigration.

• Chinese Exclusion Act (1882): The first federal law explicitly barring an entire ethnic group from immigration, justified by racist rhetoric and xenophobic fears. Senator John F. Miller famously stated: “We owe it to ourselves to preserve our institutions… from foreign influences.”

• Geary Act (1892): Expanded restrictions, mandating Chinese residents carry special identification documents, subjecting them to harassment and potential deportation.

• Residential and Educational Segregation: Chinese Americans were compelled into overcrowded urban enclaves (“Chinatowns”) and segregated schools (“Oriental Schools”), perpetuating social isolation and systematic inequality across generations.

These laws entrenched lasting systemic discrimination, severely restricting opportunities and reinforcing social marginalization.

IV. Cultural Stereotypes and Social Discrimination (“Yellow Peril,” Late 19th–Early 20th Century)
The “Yellow Peril” myth, portraying Asians as existential threats, amplified racial anxieties and prejudice.

• Anti-miscegenation laws: Legally restricted interracial marriages involving Asians, reinforcing racial hierarchies and excluding Chinese Americans from broader social integration.

• Negative Media Depictions: Chinese individuals were portrayed as sinister, morally corrupt, or criminal, entrenching negative stereotypes that justified further discriminatory practices and perpetuated widespread xenophobia.

These cultural narratives fueled intense racial prejudice, leading to ongoing social discrimination and marginalization.

V. Partial Easing During WWII (1940s)
Geopolitical circumstances during World War II prompted a partial, pragmatic easing of discriminatory policies.

• Magnuson Act (1943): Formally repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act, although it maintained strict immigration quotas. This minimal shift underscored that prejudice remained pervasive, offering limited progress despite shifting geopolitical alliances.

VI. Civil Rights Era and Immigration Reform (1950s–1970s)
The broader civil rights movements catalyzed significant improvements, though progress remained gradual.

• Immigration Act of 1965: Abolished nationality-based quotas, significantly increasing Chinese immigration and reuniting families separated by decades of exclusion.

• Active Participation in Civil Rights: Chinese Americans joined broader racial justice movements, signaling greater unity and advocacy across marginalized communities.

Though advancements were significant, systemic racism and cultural prejudice continued to persist, requiring sustained activism.

VII. Contemporary Discrimination and Hate Crimes (1980s–Present)
Even with historical advancements, discrimination against Chinese Americans remains prevalent.

• Vincent Chin Murder (1982): Chin’s brutal killing by assailants who mistakenly blamed him for economic distress highlighted ongoing racial violence and judicial bias against Asian Americans.

• Model Minority Myth: Portrayed Asian Americans as universally successful, concealing real socioeconomic disparities and legitimizing ongoing discrimination by negating systemic challenges faced by Asian communities.

• COVID-19 Pandemic Racism (2020 onward): Recent spikes in anti-Asian violence and harassment following COVID-19 vividly underscore enduring patterns of scapegoating and xenophobia directed toward Chinese and other Asian American populations.

These contemporary issues emphasize the persistent legacy of historical prejudice and discrimination.

Conclusion

Reflecting upon the extensive historical discrimination against Chinese Americans provides critical context for understanding present-day racial and social dynamics. Recognizing persistent patterns—economic scapegoating, legal exclusion, cultural stereotyping, and institutionalized racism—illuminates deeply entrenched prejudices that continue to impact Asian American communities today.

As we prepare to explore biblical justifications historically employed by Christians to rationalize discriminatory practices in the next essay of this two-part series, we must acknowledge how historical injustices profoundly shape contemporary attitudes and policies. AAPI Heritage Month thus serves as an essential moment to critically engage with these challenging histories, fostering empathy, awareness, and active advocacy. By confronting our collective past, we can work toward meaningful reconciliation, justice, and an equitable society for all Asian American and Pacific Islander communities.