The Children of Israel in Ancient Egypt: A Retrospective

The upcoming holidays provide an excellent opportunity to reflect on the historical dimensions of the Passover legend, as it is recognized as the first known social-revolutionary uprising of the working class in human history. This is a fact that we, the descendants of those who left Egypt, can rightfully take pride in.

Beyond its significance in the social sciences, this event had profound consequences: it laid the foundations for the formation of a nation, gave rise to a world religion, enabled the conquest and colonization of a vast region, and led to the widespread scattering of an endless number of worn-out sandals across the Sinai Peninsula.

The central protagonists have even been passed down to us by name—we know in detail about Moses, Aaron, Zipporah, Joshua, and Caleb. But what can we say about the Pharaoh who, in the narrative, appears as a cruel oppressor of the working masses, a greedy capitalist, and a militarist? His name is not mentioned in the Bible, possibly as a deliberate attempt to erase this tyrant from memory. However, various clues suggest ways to reconstruct his identity.

Egyptology documents a total of up to 170 pharaohs between approximately 3100 BCE and 30 BCE, although they are recorded in a fragmented manner. From these, eight related historical periods and 31 dynasties are distinguished.

From the perspective of the Exodus, two periods hold particular significance: the Middle Kingdom (approx. 2040–1782 BCE), encompassing dynasties 11 and 12, and the New Kingdom (approximately 1550–1070 BCE), covering dynasties 18 to 20. In particular, the 18th dynasty is often associated with the events of the Exodus—an era in which renowned names such as Thutmose, Akhenaten, Hatshepsut, and Tutankhamun left their mark.

The essential approach to clarifying the question of the Pharaoh of the Exodus lies in the correlated analysis of biblical tradition with extrabiblical texts and archaeological discoveries. In this context, one must accept the hypothesis that the chronological data presented in the Bible are reliable (which is a contested assumption). From this perspective, the dating of the Exodus and subsequent events appears plausible, even if the 40-year journey through the desert may seem exaggerated. However, the history of Israelite presence in Egypt began much earlier.

Let’s start from the beginning

In the second book of Moses (Exodus) 12:40–41, it is stated: “The time that the Israelites lived in Egypt was four hundred and thirty years.” This means that the immigration of the Israelites from Canaan to Egypt must be dated to approximately 1885 BCE—a period that falls within the Middle Kingdom and the 12th dynasty. This era was led by the following rulers:

1. Amenemhat I (1991–1962 BCE)
   Founder of the 12th dynasty, he moved the capital to Itjtawy and was likely assassinated.
2. Senusret I (1971–1926 BCE)
   Known for his expansionist policies in Nubia and the extension of numerous temples, particularly at Karnak.
3. Amenemhat II (1929–1895 BCE)
   Pursued a peaceful foreign policy and maintained trade relations with the Near East.
4. Senusret II (1897–1878 BCE)
   Promoted agriculture through extensive irrigation projects and is considered the likely Pharaoh during Joseph’s arrival in Egypt. He may have heeded Joseph’s advice, based on professional dream interpretations, and stored provisions for years of famine.
5. Senusret III (1878–1839 BCE)
   Responsible for military expansions in Nubia and the centralization of administration.
6. Amenemhat III (1860–1814 BCE)
   His reign marked the peak of the 12th dynasty, characterized by major construction projects.
7. Amenemhat IV (1815–1807 BCE)
   Little is known about him; his short reign was likely peaceful.
8. Sobekneferu (1806–1802 BCE)
   The first historically attested female Pharaoh of Egypt.

It seems plausible that the beginning of the settlement of the children of Israel in the eastern Nile Delta—dated to approximately 1885 BCE—falls within the reign of Senusret II (1897–1878 BCE). At the same time, Joseph was sold into Egypt around 15 to 20 years earlier (between 1905 and 1900 BCE). There, he built a career and gained the favor of the rulers, probably Amenemhat II and Senusret II.

In the time when Josef became an important figure in the pharaonic administration, his brothers and their extended clans were driven out of Canaan by famine. They settled in the eastern Nile Delta, in the so-called Land of Goshen. Under the tolerant rule of the pharaohs of the 12th dynasty and the following four or five dynasties, they seem to have fared well, as they grew into a significant population. As is often the case in Jewish history, this could not go well indefinitely.

The invasion and takeover by the Hyksos

The Hyksos, a Semitic ethnic group, took control of Lower Egypt around 1650 BCE, establishing the 15th and 16th dynasties. From Avaris, located in the eastern Nile Delta, the Hyksos introduced technological innovations such as the use of horses, war chariots, and advanced metal weaponry. Manetho mentions that the Egyptians ironically referred to the rulers of these invaders as “shepherd kings.” Their rule lasted for about a century (c. 1650–1550 BCE) and ended when Ahmose I, the founder of the 18th dynasty, expelled them from Egypt.

Since the Jewish settlement area is also believed to have been in the eastern Nile Delta, it is possible and even probable that these two Semitic groups collaborated. This could explain the later hostility of the victorious Egyptians toward all Semites including the Israelites. In the second book of Moses (Exodus 1:8), it is stated: “Now there arose a new king over Egypt, who did not know Joseph.” This could refer to a Pharaoh after the expulsion of the Hyksos, who in turn began oppressing the Semitic peoples.

After the “Golden Age” for the Israelites in Egypt was over

To identify the Pharao of the Exodus, a crucial first step is to determine the starting point for the emigration from Egypt. A relevant extrabiblical source is the writings of the Hellenistic priest Manetho (3rd century BCE), who had access to centuries-old documents. Although Manetho’s works are lost today, they were available in the first century CE to the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus. Josephus recounts these sources regarding the Jewish Exodus and names Amenophis (Amenhotep) as the Pharaoh of that period—a clear and direct claim.

In this list, the name Amenhotep appears three times during the 18th dynasty. Below is a summary of the thirteen Pharaohs of this dynasty, along with their approximate reign periods:

1. Ahmose I (c. 1550–1525 BCE)
   Ended the Second Intermediate Period, expelled the Hyksos from Egypt, and is considered the founder of the 18th dynasty.
2. Amenhotep I (c. 1525–1504 BCE)
   Continued his father’s military successes and led expeditions into Nubia and Libya.
3. Thutmose I (c. 1504–1492 BCE)
   Expanded the Egyptian empire through successful military campaigns in Nubia and the Levant.
4. Thutmose II (c. 1492–1479 BCE)
   Though his reign was short and relatively less significant, he paved the way for the later successes of his son, Thutmose III.
5. Hatshepsut (c. 1479–1458 BCE)
   One of the few reigning female Pharaohs, known for her era of peace and prosperity, monumental temple construction, and the famous expedition to Punt.
6. Thutmose III (c. 1479–1425 BCE)
   Considered one of Egypt’s greatest military leaders, significantly expanding the empire through numerous campaigns.
7. Amenhotep II (c. 1425–1400 BCE)
   Consolidated power as a successful military leader, known both for peace treaties and military victories.
8. Thutmose IV (c. 1400–1390 BCE)
   Famous for the “Dream Stele,” in which he dreams of the Sphinx at Giza and symbolically frees it from the sand.
9. Amenhotep III (c. 1390–1353 BCE)
   Had a long and prosperous reign, marked by diplomatic relations and monumental construction projects; he was also the father of Akhenaten.
10. Akhenaten (c. 1353–1336 BCE)
    Renowned for introducing monotheism, he worshipped the sun god Aten and founded the city of Akhetaten (modern-day Amarna).
11. Tutankhamun (c. 1332–1323 BCE)
    One of the most famous Pharaohs, primarily due to the discovery of his nearly intact tomb in 1922. He restored traditional polytheistic worship, ending Akhenaten’s religious reforms.
12. Ay (c. 1323–1319 BCE)
    Also known as Ay, he ruled after Tutankhamun and may have acted as a trusted co-regent.
13. Horemheb (c. 1319–1292 BCE)
    The last Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, he implemented numerous reforms, stabilized Egypt after the religious upheavals of the Amarna period and paved the way for the 19th dynasty.

Among these 13 rulers must be those who were involved in the oppression and enslavement of the children of Israel, including the Pharaoh who witnessed the Exodus and endured the biblical plagues.

The second book of Moses (Exodus 2:15), mentions the ruler’s verdict after Moses has slain an Egyptian soldier: “When Pharaoh heard of this, he sought to kill Moses. But Moses fled from Pharaoh and stayed in the land of Midian, where he sat down by a well.” Due to uncertainties regarding the dating of pharaonic reigns, scholars disagree on the involved protagonists. In this context, Amenhotep II would roughly align with the beginning of the Exodus and could be considered the ruler of that era, while the enslavement of the Jews may have begun earlier—likely during the reign of his predecessor Thutmose II. This would support Manetho’s claims.

A Look at the First Book of Kings, Chapter 6, Verse 1

A clue for defining the date of the Exodus is found in the First Book of Kings, chapter 6, verse 1: “And it came to pass in the four hundred and eightieth year after the children of Israel had come out of the land of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign over Israel, in the month of Ziv, which is the second month, that he began to build the house of the Lord.”

The fourth year of King Solomon’s reign is dated to 975 BCE, which suggests that the group that left Egypt had already set out in 1455 BCE. This places these events within the reign of Thutmose III (approximately 1479–1425 BCE). If the account of the 40-year journey through the desert is accurate, then his successor, Amenhotep II (approximately 1425–1400 BCE), would have also ruled during this period. Therefore, it is plausible that this Amenhotep is the Pharaoh whom Manetho identified as the Pharaoh of the Exodus.

Pharaoh Akhenaten (Ehnaton or Amenhotep IV)

Another significant ruler, albeit a century after the Exodus, is Akhenaten (also known as Ehnaton or Amenhotep IV, 1353–1336 BCE), who initiated a radical religious reform in the 18th dynasty. He replaced traditional polytheistic worship with the exclusive veneration of the sun god Aten, represented as a solar disk. His wife was the beautiful Nefertiti (or Nofretete). His reforms didn’t last long. After his death, the cult of Aten was suppressed, and Egypt returned to classical polytheism. Although this innovation presents an interesting parallel to the Mosaic religion, it likely occurred independently and much later than the events on Mount Sinai.

In contrast, Sigmund Freud, in his 1939 work Moses and Monotheism, formulated the theory that Israelite monotheism was influenced by Akhenaten’s Aten cult. Freud speculated that Moses was not a Jew but an Egyptian noble or priest, a follower of Akhenaten, who—after the decline of the Aten cult—transmitted the idea of monotheism to the Israelites. This hypothesis is based on a revised chronology that shortens the biblical period of Israelite residence in Egypt by at least a century. Thus, the Exodus would not have taken place in 1455 (or 1446) BCE but after Akhenaten’s death, during the reign of Tutankhamun (1332–1323 BCE). However, this chronology can neither be reconciled with Manetho’s account, nor with the extensive archeological finds in his tomb by Howard Carter.

In conclusion, the Old Testament data can be correlated with extrabiblical sources, although there are uncertainties within a margin of several decades. Among the key figures involved in events before, during, and after the Israelites’ departure from the land of Goshen are primarily Thutmose II and III, while the main suspect for having been the Pharaoh of the Exodus remains Amenhotep II. His well-preserved mummy can be admired at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, where anyone can personally reprimand him for his reprehensible deeds.