The Christian Story Through African Eyes

[Author’s Note: This is the sixth in a series.]

Retelling Christianity through the lens of African history and agency provides a transformative perspective, challenging Eurocentric narratives that frequently marginalize or overlook Africa’s vital contributions. From early biblical mentions through medieval kingdoms and into contemporary global expressions, Africa has significantly influenced Christianity’s development and global character.

I have explored part of this topic before in another article, “What Do You Know About Israel’s African Communities?” Jewish Boston, January 3, 2023.

Africans in the Hebrew Bible (The Old Testament)

In “Hidden Africans of the Bible and Early Church,” the author notes that the terms “Cush” and “Cushite,” which are used 57 times in the Hebrew Bible, are designations for an African nation and people. The article states:

“Biblical scholars are aware that ‘Cush’ sometimes refers to all of Africa, sometimes to all of Africa except Egypt, and sometimes to ancient Nubia, stretching from modern Aswan in the north to Khartoum in the south. Today most of this area lies in the Sudan.”

Here are some examples of Biblical references to these ancient Africans:

• Psalm 68:31 declares that “Cush shall reach out its arms to God.”
• Psalm 87:3-6 predicted that one day people would recognize the spirituality of the Cushites and declare that they had been born anew in Zion.
• Isaiah 11:11 foretold that God would bring forth the surviving remnants of his people from Cush.
• Isaiah 18:1-8 recounts a redeemed people from Cush bearing gifts to Zion.
• Zephaniah 3:10 proclaimed that from beyond the rivers of Cush, God’s people would bring offerings.
• Amos 9:7 expresses God’s concern for the Cushites.

Africans mentioned in the Bible include Hagar, Abraham’s Egyptian concubine, as well as Zipporah, Zephaniah Jehudi, Ebed-Melek and the Queen of Sheba. Moses and Solomon married African wives. A Cushite was a trusted courtier sent to bring David the news of Absalom’s death. When Cushite pharaohs ruled over Egypt, they established military alliances with the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Ebed-Melek, a Cushite, was a confidential advisor to King Zedekiah who risked his life to rescue the prophet Jeremiah from a cistern and then obtained him an audience with the king. In Jeremiah 39:15-18, God tells the prophet that Ebed-Melek will be protected because of his faith.

According to the “Hidden Africans” article, there was an Ethiopian colony at Gerar, which served as a buffer between Egypt and Judah until Hezekiah’s time (715-685 BCE), making Ethiopians permanent residents of Palestine for a period.

Early Christianity in Africa (1st–4th Centuries)

Biblical Mentions and Oral Traditions

The earliest recorded interaction between Africans and Christianity appears in biblical texts such as the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 8), recounting the conversion of an Ethiopian eunuch, suggesting that Christianity reached Africa in the very first century. Oral traditions in Ethiopia and Egypt further indicate the faith’s early presence, even predating official missionary endeavors from Europe.

In Acts 8:26-39, we learn of the conversion of Candace’s Ethiopian treasurer. Candace was Queen Mother of the powerful African nation of Nubia, which was situated primarily in the area that is now Sudan. The citizens of Cyrene, a city further north, also had close ties with Jerusalem. Simon of Cyrene, a devout Jew who came to Jerusalem for a Passover visit, is said to have been forced to carry Jesus’ cross, which may have led to him and his sons becoming believers, as mentioned in Mark 15:21 and Romans 16:13.

Alexandria and the Coptic Church

Alexandria, Egypt, became one of Christianity’s initial intellectual and spiritual centers, closely associated with Saint Mark. From this hub emerged the Coptic Orthodox Church, renowned for its unique liturgical rites, distinct theological insights, and pioneering spiritual innovations like the ascetic practices of the Desert Fathers and Mothers. These African monastic practices deeply influenced global Christianity, providing foundations for asceticism and monastic traditions worldwide.

Influential African Thinkers

The early Christian church prominently featured several Africans, including Clement of Alexandria (150-215), Tertullian (160-225), Athanasius (296-373), Cyril, Cyprian, Lactantius, Augustine and Zeno of Verona. Many of these were bishops, meaning they played leadership roles in the church.

Early Christian theologians such as Origen, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Cyprian, and Augustine of Hippo were Africans whose works significantly shaped Christian thought across the Mediterranean world. Their theological frameworks were influenced by North African cultural traditions, rhetorical styles, and local spiritual sensibilities, demonstrating African intellectual leadership within early Christianity.

African Christian Kingdoms and Traditions (4th–15th Centuries)

Nubia and Ethiopia

Christianity flourished in the kingdoms of Nubia (including Nobatia, Makuria, Alodia) from the 6th century, where vibrant Christian cultures persisted for centuries amidst the rise of Islam. Similarly, in Ethiopia, Christianity was formally embraced by King Ezana of Aksum in the 4th century, establishing one of the oldest continuous Christian traditions in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Ethiopian Christianity retained distinctive Judaic-Christian practices, including fasting, veneration of the Ark of the Covenant, and unique liturgical language (Ge’ez). Its cultural expressions, such as the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, stand as powerful monuments to African Christian agency.

Spread to Sub-Saharan Africa: Kingdom of Kongo

Although Islam dominated many trans-Saharan trade routes from the 8th century, Christianity continued to thrive in pockets across Africa, notably the Kingdom of Kongo. From the late 15th century, Kongo rulers like King Nzinga a Nkuwu (João I) and King Afonso I adopted Christianity, actively blending it with local traditions. African clergy maintained significant control of local church practices, demonstrating autonomous African Christianity well before formal European colonialism.

The Three African Popes

Between the 2nd and 5th centuries, three Africans ascended to the papacy, illustrating the significant African contribution to early Christianity:

• Pope Victor I (189–199 CE): Born in Roman North Africa, he standardized liturgical practices and emphasized Roman authority.
• Pope Miltiades (311–314 CE): Presided over the legalization of Christianity under Emperor Constantine, helping to shape the church’s foundational structure.
• Pope Gelasius I (492–496 CE): Influential in developing early church doctrines, including articulating the balance between ecclesiastical and secular authority.

These African popes played pivotal roles in shaping Christianity’s institutional and doctrinal structures.

Forced Migration and Diasporic Christianity (15th–19th Centuries)

Transatlantic Slave Trade

Enslaved Africans transported to the Americas carried diverse religious traditions, including indigenous African religions and forms of African Christianity (from regions like Kongo and Angola). Although European-dominated Christianity confronted them, enslaved Africans creatively adapted faith practices to their cultural frameworks.

Syncretism and Survival

In Brazil, Christianity interwove with Yoruba and Bantu traditions, creating syncretic religions such as Candomblé. The Caribbean similarly saw spiritual mixtures in Haitian Vodou and Jamaican Revival Zion, blending African spiritual practices with Catholic and Protestant elements. In North America, enslaved Africans incorporated African rhythms, communal solidarity, and liberation narratives (such as the Exodus) into secret worship gatherings known as “hush harbors,” eventually leading to the formation of the Black Church, a powerful force for emancipation and civil rights.

Modern Developments: African Agency and Global Influence (19th Century–Present)

African-Led Missions and Independent Churches

Despite intensified European missionary activity in the 19th century, African evangelists became central to Christianity’s spread. Movements such as the Ethiopian Church in Southern Africa and Nigeria’s Aladura Churches arose independently, integrating African worship styles, healing rituals, and communal structures, actively resisting European ecclesiastical dominance.

African and Diaspora Theologies

Contemporary African theologians like John Mbiti (Kenya) and Bolaji Idowu (Nigeria) emphasized contextual theology, asserting the necessity of Christianity’s resonance with African realities. Similarly, in the African American context, James Cone pioneered Black Liberation Theology, connecting the Gospel explicitly with racial justice, significantly impacting global Christian thought. Throughout the diaspora, African-rooted traditions profoundly influenced religious practice and social justice advocacy.

Global Pentecostalism

Pentecostal and charismatic movements, emphasizing the Holy Spirit’s active presence and spiritual gifts, have found deep resonance among African and African-descended peoples. African-founded churches such as the Redeemed Christian Church of God and the Church of Pentecost have expanded internationally, influencing global worship styles, prayer traditions, and theological frameworks.

Influences of Traditional African Religions on Christianity

African traditional religions have significantly shaped Christianity, particularly through monastic practices, ancestral reverence blending with saintly veneration, spirit-based worship, and communal rituals involving music, dance, and healing. Ethiopian Orthodoxy notably reflects deep Aksumite religious traditions, incorporating ancient Judaic-Christian heritage.

Conclusion: Re-centering Christianity’s Story through Africa

Tracing Christianity through African history—rather than through a Eurocentric lens—reveals a tradition rich with African intellectual contributions, vibrant independent movements, resilient diasporic reinterpretations, and influential contemporary global leadership. Africa emerges not as peripheral but central, providing innovative expressions and significant leadership that continue to shape global Christianity profoundly. Recognizing Africa’s foundational role revitalizes and broadens the Christian narrative, affirming a truly global and diverse understanding of the faith.

Bibliography and Reference Materials:

Early Christianity and Ancient Africa

• Bowersock, Glen W. The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
  (Examines the influence of Christianity and trade on ancient Ethiopian kingdoms.)
• Isichei, Elizabeth. A History of Christianity in Africa: From Antiquity to the Present. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995.
  (A comprehensive overview of Christianity across Africa.)
• Oden, Thomas C. How Africa Shaped the Christian Mind: Rediscovering the African Seedbed of Western Christianity. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2007.
  (Argues strongly for Africa’s central role in early Christian theological and philosophical developments.)
• Wilken, Robert Louis. The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.
  (A global history highlighting Christianity’s roots in Africa, particularly in Egypt and Ethiopia.)

North African Christianity and Early African Church Fathers

• Augustine of Hippo. Confessions. Translated by Henry Chadwick. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
  (Primary texts by one of Africa’s most influential theologians.)
• Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo: A Biography. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
  (Explores Augustine’s African context and his influence on Christianity.)
• Frend, W.H.C. The Rise of Christianity. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1984.
  (Highlights Christianity’s origins and early developments in North Africa.)
• Tilley, Maureen. The Bible in Christian North Africa: The Donatist World. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007.
  (Provides deep insight into North African theological and church history.

Christianity in Nubia, Aksum, and the Nile Valley

• Phillipson, David W. Ancient Ethiopia: Aksum: Its Antecedents and Successors. London: British Museum Press, 1998.
  (Details Ethiopia’s long Christian history and the distinctiveness of its Christian culture.)
• Shinnie, Peter. Ancient Nubia. New York: Kegan Paul International, 1996.
  (Provides a comprehensive look at the Christian kingdoms of Nubia.)

Kingdom of Kongo and African Christian Agency

• Thornton, John K. The Kongolese Saint Anthony: Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita and the Antonian Movement, 1684-1706. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  (Explores how Kongolese leaders adapted Christianity.)
• Thornton, John K. Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  (Detailed exploration of African agency and adaptation of Christianity.)