Examining Holocaust knowledge and awareness worldwide

As we approach the 80th anniversary of the liberation of the Nazi concentration camps, a groundbreaking study released in January 2025 has revealed disturbing trends in Holocaust awareness across eight countries. The Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany (Claims Conference) recently released its first-ever Eight-Country Holocaust Knowledge and Awareness Index, providing unprecedented insights into how the Holocaust is understood—and misunderstood—across different nations. The findings paint a concerning picture of fading knowledge, particularly among younger generations, at a time when remembering the Holocaust has never been more important.

The Scope and Methodology of the Study

The Claims Conference commissioned Global Strategy Group to conduct this comprehensive survey between November 15-28, 2023. The study included representative samples of 1,000 adults in each of eight countries: the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Austria, Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Romania. With a margin of error of +/- 3.1%, the survey provides a statistically robust snapshot of Holocaust awareness across nations with varying historical relationships to these events.

The timing of this study is particularly significant. As Claims Conference Executive Vice President Greg Schneider noted, “With the Holocaust survivor population rapidly declining, we are at a critical and irreversible crossroads. Survivors, our most powerful educators, will not be with us much longer—and this Index is a stark warning that without urgent and sustained action, the history and lessons of the Holocaust risk slipping into obscurity”.

Baseline Holocaust Awareness

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The survey reveals that baseline Holocaust awareness is generally high across most countries surveyed, though with notable exceptions. Polish and Hungarian adults demonstrated the highest awareness levels, with 98% of respondents in both countries indicating they had heard of the Holocaust. The United States, United Kingdom, Germany, and Austria followed closely behind with awareness levels of 95-97%.

France, however, stands as a concerning outlier. Only 78% of French adults reported having heard of the “Shoah”, meaning that more than one in five French adults (22%) said they had not heard or weren’t sure if they had heard of the Shoah prior to taking the survey.

Even more alarming is the awareness gap among young adults aged 18-29. In France, a shocking 46% of young adults indicated they had not heard or weren’t sure if they had heard of the Holocaust. Similar, though less severe, trends appeared in Romania (15%), Austria (14%), and Germany (12%). This generational knowledge gap suggests serious deficiencies in Holocaust education in these countries, particularly in France.

Critical Knowledge Gaps

Perhaps the most disturbing finding is that majorities of the population in nearly all countries surveyed do not know that six million Jews were killed during the Holocaust. The percentages of adults who lack this basic knowledge are staggering: 66% in Romania, 64% in France, 56% in the United States, 55% in Hungary, 53% in the United Kingdom, 52% in Austria and Poland, and 49% in Germany.

Even more concerning, substantial percentages believe that two million or fewer Jews were murdered—a severe underestimation of the actual death toll. This misconception is held by 28% in Romania, 27% in Hungary, 24% in Poland, 21% in France, the US, and Austria, 20% in the UK, and 18% in Germany.

The knowledge gap is particularly pronounced among young adults aged 18-29. In Romania, 70% of young adults do not know that six million Jews were killed, followed by France (65%), the United States (54%), Austria (53%), Poland (53%), Hungary (48%), the United Kingdom (47%), and Germany (40%).

Concentration Camp Awareness

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When asked to name concentration camps, killing centers, or ghettos, nearly half (48%) of Americans could not name a single one of the more than 40,000 camps established during World War II. One-quarter of adults in the UK, France, and Romania similarly failed to name any camp or ghetto. The percentages were somewhat better in Germany and Hungary (18%), Austria (10%), and Poland (7%).

Auschwitz-Birkenau emerged as the most well-known camp across all countries, with recognition rates ranging from 44% in the US to 86% in Poland. Other camps had much lower recognition rates, highlighting the concentration of Holocaust memory around a few symbolic sites rather than a comprehensive understanding of the Nazi camp system.

The knowledge gap is even more pronounced among young adults. In Romania, 52% of those aged 18-29 could not name a single Nazi camp or ghetto. Similarly, 43% of young French adults, 33% of young British adults, and 26% of young German adults were unable to name any camp or ghetto.

Knowing the Holocaust Perpetrators

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Across countries, most adults believe Hitler and high-ranking Nazis committed most of the crimes against Jews during the Holocaust. This view was held by 71% in Hungary and Romania, 66% in France, 64% in Poland, 61% in Germany, 59% in the US, and 58% in both Austria and the UK.

Fewer respondents recognized the role of ordinary Europeans in perpetrating the Holocaust. Only 45% of Austrian adults, 39% of German adults, 37% of US adults, 33% of UK adults, 30% of French adults, 24% of Romanian adults, 21% of Hungarian adults, and 15% of Polish adults acknowledged that a significant portion of ordinary people across Europe helped the Nazis and their collaborators carry out the Holocaust, directly and indirectly.

This finding suggests a tendency to view the Holocaust as primarily the work of Nazi leadership rather than recognizing the broader societal complicity that made the genocide possible.

Holocaust Denial and Distortion: A Growing Concern

The survey revealed deeply troubling levels of Holocaust denial and distortion across all countries, with particularly concerning trends in how these falsehoods are perceived and spread.

Across countries surveyed, a sizeable share of the population does not believe the number of Jews killed in the Holocaust has been accurately described—25% in France and Austria, 24% in Germany, 23% in Poland and Romania, 19% in Hungary, 17% in the UK, and 16% in the US.

Even more concerning is the finding that 18-29-year-olds are more likely to believe that the number of Jews killed during the Holocaust has been exaggerated. In Romania, among adults aged 18 to 29, a majority (53%) agree that while the Holocaust happened, the number of Jews killed has been “greatly exaggerated.” This form of Holocaust distortion was also present among young adults in other countries: 33% in France, 22% in Hungary, 21% in Austria, 15% in the US, 14% in Poland, 13% in Germany, and 11% in the UK.

Outright Holocaust denial, though less common, was still present in all surveyed countries. The percentage of adults who agreed that “the Holocaust is a myth and did not happen” was highest in Romania (7%) and France (4%), followed by the US and Austria (3%), and Hungary, the UK, Poland, and Germany (2% each). Among young adults aged 18-29, these percentages were even higher: 15% in Romania, 8% in France, 5% in the US and Hungary, 3% in Austria, and 2% in the UK, Poland, and Germany.

Americans and Hungarians were most likely to report that Holocaust denial is common in their countries, with 45% of Hungarians and 44% of Americans stating that denial is common. This was followed by 38% in France, 34% in Germany, 27% in Austria, 24% in the UK and Romania, and 20% in Poland.

Holocaust distortion was perceived as even more widespread, with nearly half of adults in the US (49%), Hungary (47%), France (44%), and Germany (44%) reporting that distortion is common in their country. Lower percentages were reported in Austria (34%), Poland (27%), the UK (26%), and Romania (25%).

Social Media as Vector for Holocaust Denial

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Social media has emerged as a significant vector for Holocaust denial and distortion. When asked if they had encountered Holocaust denial or distortion while on social media, nearly half (47%) of Polish adults said “yes.” In Austria and Hungary, this number was 38%, in Germany 37%, in the US 33%, in Romania 25%, in the UK 23%, and in France 20%.

Facebook emerged as the platform where Holocaust denial or distortion was most commonly encountered across almost all countries, followed by X (formerly Twitter), YouTube, and TikTok. Among young adults aged 18-29, TikTok and Instagram were also significant sources of Holocaust denial or distortion.

This digital dimension of Holocaust denial and distortion presents new challenges for Holocaust education, as young people increasingly encounter misinformation online rather than through traditional educational channels. The survey findings suggest that social media platforms have become key battlegrounds in the fight against Holocaust denial and distortion, particularly for reaching younger generations.

The Specter of Repetition

Perhaps most chilling is the widespread belief that something like the Holocaust could happen again. This sentiment was strongest in the United States, where more than three-quarters (76%) of adults surveyed believe another Holocaust could occur. This concern was shared by majorities in the UK (69%), France (63%), Austria (62%), Germany (61%), Poland (54%), and Hungary (52%). Only in Romania did less than half (44%) express this fear.

Claims Conference President Gideon Taylor highlighted the significance of this finding: “Equally troubling is the widespread belief that something like the Holocaust could happen again, underscoring the critical importance of educating people about the consequences of unchecked hatred and bigotry”.

Overwhelming Support for Holocaust Education

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Despite these knowledge gaps, there is overwhelming support for Holocaust education across all surveyed countries. Nine in ten or more adults believe it is important to continue teaching about the Holocaust, with the highest support in the US and Poland (96%), followed by the UK and Germany (94%), France and Romania (93%), Hungary (91%), and Austria (90%).

Similarly, there is strong support for Holocaust education in schools: 95% in the US, 93% in Poland, 92% in the UK, 91% in France, 88% in Hungary, 87% in Germany, 84% in Austria, and 78% in Romania.

As Matthew Bronfman, who led the Index Taskforce, noted: “It is powerful to see that a majority of all people polled across all countries in this index not only agree that Holocaust education is important but want to continue teaching the Holocaust in schools. Now our task is clear; we must take this mandate and make it happen”.

Country-Specific Findings

The survey revealed relevant variations in Holocaust knowledge across the eight countries:

• United States: Americans showed particularly concerning gaps in basic Holocaust knowledge. Nearly half (48%) could not name a single concentration camp or ghetto, and 56% did not know that six million Jews were killed. More than half (53%) of US adults incorrectly believe the largest number of Jewish people murdered came from Germany, while fewer than one quarter (22%) correctly identified Poland. Additionally, 44% of Americans reported that Holocaust denial is common in their country, and 49% said Holocaust distortion is common, suggesting a challenging environment for Holocaust education despite 96% of Americans supporting Holocaust education in schools.
• United Kingdom: In the UK, 53% of adults did not know that six million Jews were killed during the Holocaust, and 20% believed that two million or fewer Jews were murdered. One-quarter of British adults could not name a single concentration camp or ghetto, rising to 33% among young adults aged 18-29. Only 24% of UK adults correctly identified Poland as the country from which the largest number of Jewish victims came, with many incorrectly believing Germany was the primary source of victims. The UK showed relatively lower perceptions of Holocaust denial (24% said it was common) compared to some other countries, but 69% of British adults expressed concern that something like the Holocaust could happen again.
• France: France showed the lowest baseline Holocaust awareness of all countries surveyed, with 22% of adults and a shocking 46% of young adults indicating they had not heard or weren’t sure if they had heard of the Shoah. French adults were divided on whether the largest number of Jewish people murdered came from Germany (26%) or Poland (28%), with a significant percentage (14%) incorrectly believing they came from France. Holocaust denial and distortion appeared to be significant concerns, with 25% of French adults believing the number of Jews killed has been inaccurately described, and 33% of young French adults believing the number has been “greatly exaggerated.”
• Germany: Half of German adults incorrectly believe the largest number of Jewish people murdered came from Germany, while fewer than one quarter (22%) correctly identified Poland. However, Germans showed the lowest percentage (18%) of respondents who believed that two million or fewer Jews were killed during the Holocaust. Still, 49% of German adults did not know that six million Jews were killed. Regarding Holocaust denial and distortion, 34% of Germans reported that Holocaust denial is common in their country, and 44% said distortion is common. A significant 61% of German adults expressed belief that something like the Holocaust could happen again.
• Austria: In Austria, 52% of adults did not know that six million Jews were killed during the Holocaust, and 21% believed that two million or fewer Jews were murdered. Only 10% of Austrian adults could not name a single concentration camp or ghetto, one of the better results among surveyed countries, though this rose to 14% among young adults. Austria showed concerning levels of Holocaust distortion, with 25% of adults not believing the number of Jews killed has been accurately described, and 21% of young adults believing the number has been “greatly exaggerated.” Like Germany, a majority of Austrians (62%) believed something like the Holocaust could happen again, despite 90% supporting Holocaust education.
• Poland: Polish adults demonstrated the highest awareness of where Holocaust victims came from, with 70% correctly identifying Poland. They also had the lowest percentage (7%) who could not name a single concentration camp or ghetto. However, 24% of Polish adults still believed that two million or fewer Jews were killed during the Holocaust, and 52% did not know the correct figure of six million. Poland showed the highest rate (47%) of adults reporting they had encountered Holocaust denial or distortion on social media. Despite these challenges, Poland demonstrated strong support for Holocaust education, with 96% believing it is important to continue teaching about the Holocaust and 93% supporting Holocaust education in schools.
• Hungary: Hungary showed high baseline Holocaust awareness (98%), but significant knowledge gaps remained. 55% of Hungarian adults did not know that six million Jews were killed, and 27% believed that two million or fewer Jews were murdered. Only 18% could not name a single concentration camp or ghetto. Hungary had the highest percentage (45%) of adults reporting that Holocaust denial is common in their country, and 47% reported that Holocaust distortion is common. Only 21% of Hungarian adults acknowledged the role of ordinary Europeans in perpetrating the Holocaust, suggesting a tendency to view the Holocaust primarily as the work of Nazi leadership. Despite these challenges, 91% of Hungarians supported continued Holocaust education.
• Romania: Romania showed some of the most concerning trends in Holocaust denial and distortion. A majority (53%) of Romanian young adults believed the number of Jews killed during the Holocaust has been exaggerated, and 7% of all Romanian adults (15% of young adults) agreed that “the Holocaust is a myth and did not happen”—the highest percentages among all countries surveyed. Romania also had the highest percentage (66%) of adults who did not know that six million Jews were killed during the Holocaust, and 28% believed that two million or fewer Jews were murdered. One-quarter of Romanian adults could not name a single concentration camp or ghetto, rising to 52% among young adults. Despite these knowledge gaps, 93% of Romanians believed it is important to continue teaching about the Holocaust.

Conclusion

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The Claims Conference’s Eight-Country Holocaust Knowledge and Awareness Index reveals a troubling picture of fading Holocaust knowledge across multiple countries, particularly among younger generations. Basic facts about the Holocaust—including the number of Jews killed and the names of concentration camps—are unknown to significant portions of the population in all surveyed countries. The knowledge gaps revealed by this survey are deeply concerning, particularly among younger generations.

Even more concerning are the levels of Holocaust denial and distortion, especially among young adults. The finding that a majority of Romanian young adults and one-third of French young adults believe the number of Jews killed has been “greatly exaggerated” signals a serious failure in Holocaust education.

At the same time, the widespread belief that something like the Holocaust could happen again—held by majorities in seven of the eight countries surveyed—suggests an awareness of the continuing dangers of antisemitism and hatred. Also the strong support for Holocaust education across all countries provides a foundation for addressing these knowledge gaps.

But as the number of Holocaust survivors dwindles, we face a critical juncture in Holocaust remembrance and education. It becomes increasingly urgent to find new ways to educate future generations about the Holocaust and its lessons. The time to act is now, while survivors can still share their testimonies and while the memory of the Holocaust remains within living memory. Greg Schneider emphasized the urgency of the situation: “This is our final chance, our last moment in history, to honor their legacy by ensuring that our commitment to remembering their experiences is unshakable and unwavering“.

As we mark 80 years since the liberation of the Nazi concentration camps, the findings of this survey remind us that remembering the Holocaust is not just about honoring the past—it’s about safeguarding the future. The knowledge gaps identified in this study must be addressed through comprehensive Holocaust education that reaches across generations and borders.