Antisemitism History II: From Holocaust to Pre-2023 Developments

Introduction

In the previous post, the historical evolution of antisemitism was traced from its ancient foundations through to the early 20th century. This exploration highlighted how antisemitism adapted across different eras, from religious prejudice in antiquity and the Middle Ages to racial theories and global conspiracy narratives in modern times. The brief analysis demonstrated that while the forms of antisemitism evolved, its core themes of scapegoating, exclusion, and prejudice remained constant.

This second post continues that historical journey, focusing on three pivotal phases where antisemitism reached unprecedented levels of impact and transformation. It begins with Nazi Germany and the Holocaust (1933–1945), where antisemitism culminated in genocide, representing the catastrophic consequences of centuries of hatred when institutionalized by state power. It then examines the establishment of Israel in 1948 and the persistence of antisemitism (1948–1960s), a period that introduced new dimensions to this hatred as Israel became a focal point for modern antisemitic narratives. Finally, it addresses more recent manifestations (1970s–pre-October 7, 2023), where antisemitism adapted yet again, thriving in digital spaces and political discourse while maintaining its destructive core.

Nazi Germany and the Holocaust (1933–1945)

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The Holocaust, or Shoah, stands as the most catastrophic culmination of antisemitism in human history – a systematic genocide that resulted in the murder of six million Jews by Nazi Germany and its collaborators. This atrocity was not an isolated event but the product of centuries of entrenched antisemitic ideologies, which the Nazi regime weaponized and institutionalized to devastating effect. The period between 1933 and 1945 marked an unprecedented escalation of antisemitism, transforming it from prejudice and exclusion into state-sponsored extermination.

Adolf Hitler’s rise to power in 1933 brought antisemitism to the forefront of German politics. Hitler and the Nazi Party exploited existing stereotypes and prejudices, blaming Jews for Germany’s economic hardships, defeat in World War I, and the perceived threat of communism. These narratives resonated with a population seeking scapegoats for their struggles, enabling the Nazis to implement sweeping anti-Jewish policies. Early measures included boycotts of Jewish businesses, exclusion from public professions, and the passage of the Nuremberg Laws in 1935. These laws stripped Jews of citizenship, prohibited intermarriage with non-Jews, and defined Jewish identity based on ancestry, marking a shift to racial antisemitism.

From 1933 to 1939, Nazi policies escalated from discrimination to outright persecution. The 1935 Nuremberg Laws stripped Jews of citizenship and prohibited intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews. Economic boycotts targeted Jewish businesses, while propaganda campaigns dehumanized Jews as subversive enemies of the Aryan “master race.” The November Pogrom of 1938 (Kristallnacht) marked a turning point: synagogues were burned, Jewish businesses destroyed, and thousands of Jews arrested and sent to concentration camps. This event signaled the Nazis’ shift from marginalization to violent oppression.

The onset of World War II in 1939 expanded Nazi control over Europe and intensified their persecution of Jews. Ghettos were established in occupied territories to isolate Jewish populations under horrific conditions. By 1941, Nazi leaders formulated the “Final Solution to the Jewish Question” – a plan for systematic genocide. Einsatzgruppen (mobile killing units) carried out mass shootings across Eastern Europe, murdering over 1.5 million Jews in what became known as the “Holocaust by bullets.” These operations were later deemed inefficient by Nazi officials, leading to the construction of extermination camps such as Auschwitz-Birkenau, Treblinka, and Sobibor.

The extermination camps represented industrialized murder on an unprecedented scale. Victims were transported by train under false pretenses, often believing they were being relocated for work or resettlement. Upon arrival, most were immediately sent to gas chambers disguised as showers. Those deemed fit for labor faced brutal conditions that led to death through starvation, disease, or exhaustion – a process known as “extermination through labor”. Over 2.7 million Jews were murdered in these camps alone.

The Holocaust extended beyond German borders through collaboration with local authorities in occupied countries. Governments in Axis-aligned states actively participated in deporting Jews to death camps or carrying out mass killings themselves. Even in regions where direct collaboration was limited, local populations often assisted or turned a blind eye to atrocities.

The Holocaust demonstrated the catastrophic consequences of antisemitism when institutionalized by state power and embraced by society at large. It revealed how deeply entrenched hatred can lead to unimaginable atrocities when left unchecked. The Shoah not only decimated Jewish communities across Europe but also left an indelible mark on global consciousness – a stark reminder of humanity’s capacity for evil.

The Holocaust had profound implications for Zionism and Jewish self-determination. The genocide exposed the urgent need for a sovereign Jewish state where Jews could find refuge from persecution – a goal realized with the establishment of Israel in 1948. The Shoah remains a stark reminder of humanity’s capacity for evil when hatred is institutionalized and unchecked. It also reinforces Zionist ideals: ensuring Jewish security through sovereignty and self-determination is not merely a political aspiration but a historical necessity.

The Establishment of Israel and the Persistence of Antisemitism (1948–1960s)

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The establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 marked a transformative moment in Jewish history, providing a sovereign homeland for a people who had endured centuries of persecution culminating in the Holocaust.

However, this monumental achievement did not signify the end of antisemitism; rather, it introduced new dimensions to its manifestations. The period from Israel’s founding to the 1960s illustrates how antisemitism adapted to geopolitical changes while continuing to threaten Jewish security and self-determination.

The declaration of Israel’s independence on May 14, 1948, followed the United Nations Partition Plan of 1947, which proposed dividing British Mandatory Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states. While the Jewish leadership accepted the plan, Arab leaders rejected it outright, framing their opposition with rhetoric that often echoed antisemitic themes. The rejection culminated in the invasion of the newly established state by five Arab armies – Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, and Lebanon – on the very day of its founding. This war was not merely a military conflict but also a continuation of antisemitic narratives portraying Jews as illegitimate interlopers in their ancestral homeland.

Despite being outnumbered and under-equipped, Israel’s military forces achieved a remarkable victory in what became known as the War of Independence (1948–1949). However, this triumph came at great human and economic cost. Approximately 700,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled during the conflict, becoming refugees – a development that Arab leaders used to perpetuate hostility toward Israel. Antisemitic propaganda in the Arab world intensified after Israel’s establishment, portraying Zionism as a global Jewish conspiracy and equating it with colonialism or imperialism. These narratives reinforced traditional antisemitic stereotypes while framing opposition to Israel as a geopolitical and ideological imperative.

In the aftermath of World War II, overt expressions of antisemitism became less socially acceptable in Western societies due to widespread revulsion at Nazi atrocities. However, prejudice persisted in subtler forms. In Eastern Europe, communist regimes often cloaked antisemitism in anti-Zionist rhetoric. Jews were accused of “cosmopolitanism” or disloyalty to socialist ideals, leading to purges and discrimination. For example, Stalin’s “Doctors’ Plot” (1952) falsely accused Jewish doctors of conspiring to harm Soviet leaders – a modern adaptation of medieval blood libel tropes.

Globally, antisemitic conspiracy theories gained traction by linking Jewish communities and Israel to alleged plots for world domination. The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (see above) continued to circulate widely in both Western and Arab contexts during this period. These conspiracy theories fueled hostility toward Israel on an international scale and framed its existence as part of a broader Jewish agenda.

The 1956 Suez Crisis underscored Israel’s precarious position in a hostile region. After Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal and blockaded Israeli shipping through the Straits of Tiran, Israel joined Britain and France in a military campaign against Egypt. Although militarily successful, international pressure forced Israeli withdrawal from Sinai and Gaza. In response, Arab leaders intensified their anti-Israel rhetoric with overtly antisemitic undertones, portraying Jews as eternal enemies seeking regional domination.

This period also saw increasing alignment between anti-Zionism and broader antisemitic ideologies. Criticism of Israel often extended beyond legitimate political discourse into demonization that mirrored historical prejudices against Jews. For instance, caricatures depicting Israelis as manipulative or malevolent echoed centuries-old antisemitic imagery.

By the early 1960s, tensions between Israel and its neighbors were escalating rapidly. Arab states openly declared their intention to destroy Israel – a goal frequently justified with language steeped in antisemitic tropes about Jewish illegitimacy and malevolence. Palestinian militant groups such as Fatah carried out cross-border attacks with support from Egypt and Jordan, further destabilizing the region.

At the same time, Holocaust denial began to emerge as an organized movement during this period. Figures like Paul Rassinier in Europe sought to minimize or deny Nazi atrocities against Jews under pseudo-scholarly pretenses. This form of antisemitism aimed not only to erase historical accountability but also to delegitimize Jewish claims for self-determination by undermining one of Zionism’s central justifications: ensuring Jewish survival after the Shoah.

The establishment of Israel was a monumental achievement for the Jewish people – a realization of Zionist aspirations for sovereignty after millennia of persecution. However, this period also demonstrated how deeply entrenched antisemitism could adapt to new realities. From Arab rejectionism framed by antisemitic propaganda to Holocaust denial and anti-Zionist rhetoric masking traditional prejudices, hostility toward Jews persisted on multiple fronts. Yet amid these challenges, Israel thrived as a beacon for Jewish resilience and renewal. Its survival underscored the necessity of Zionism: securing Jewish self-determination was not merely a response to past atrocities but an ongoing safeguard against enduring hatred. The lessons from this era remain clear – antisemitism must be confronted wherever it appears, whether cloaked in political ideologies or expressed through age-old stereotypes.

Contemporary Manifestations (1970s – pre-October 7, 2023)

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The aftermath of the 1967 Six-Day War marked a turning point in antisemitic discourse, with Israel increasingly becoming a focal point for hostility. While legitimate criticism of Israeli policies exists, research demonstrates that traditional antisemitic tropes frequently infiltrate anti-Israel rhetoric. Accusations of blood libel, conspiracy theories about Jewish control, and comparisons of Israel to Nazi Germany are common examples. These manifestations blur the line between political critique and prejudice, creating dynamics where antisemitism is expressed either intentionally or unconsciously. This phenomenon underscores how historical prejudices can adapt to contemporary contexts, using opposition to Israel as a vehicle for perpetuating antisemitic narratives.

Economic crises have long served as fertile ground for antisemitic conspiracy theories, and recent history illustrates the persistence of this pattern. The 2008 global financial crisis triggered widespread rhetoric blaming Jews for economic instability. Modern iterations of these conspiracies often employ coded language rather than explicit references to Jewish individuals or communities. Terms such as “globalists,” “international bankers,” or “Rothschilds” function as proxies for traditional antisemitic stereotypes, allowing prejudice to circulate in ways that appear less overt but remain deeply rooted in historical biases. This coded language spans the political spectrum, demonstrating the adaptability of antisemitism to diverse ideological frameworks.

The internet has revolutionized the dissemination of antisemitism, enabling unprecedented global connectivity between extremist communities. Online platforms allow antisemitic content to bypass traditional media gatekeepers, while algorithms often amplify hateful narratives. This digital ecosystem facilitates the rapid spread of conspiracy theories and hate speech, making antisemitism more accessible and pervasive than ever before. The tragic 2018 Pittsburgh synagogue shooting exemplifies the dangers of online radicalization: the perpetrator’s antisemitic beliefs were reinforced through digital communities that fostered hatred and conspiracy thinking. This event highlights how modern technology can transform ideological prejudice into violent action.

In recent years leading up to October 7, 2023, antisemitism experienced a troubling surge across multiple regions and contexts. Reports from organizations like the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) documented record-breaking increases in antisemitic incidents worldwide. In 2023 alone, over 3,500 incidents were recorded in the United States during the first nine months—a significant rise compared to previous years. Germany saw similar trends, with over 1,300 incidents reported in the same period. These figures reflect a broader global escalation in antisemitic activity. Public demonstrations increasingly featured overtly antisemitic rhetoric disguised as political protest. Slogans invoking historical massacres of Jews or glorifying acts of violence against Jewish communities were openly chanted at rallies in major cities worldwide. Such incidents often went unchallenged by authorities or public figures, contributing to an environment where expressing hatred toward Jews became disturbingly normalized. In digital spaces, Holocaust distortion and denial gained traction alongside conspiracy theories about Jewish influence. Again, terms like “globalists” or “international bankers” (see above) were frequently used as coded language to perpetuate traditional stereotypes without explicitly referencing Jews. This shift toward subtler forms of expression allowed antisemitism to infiltrate mainstream discourse while evading scrutiny.

Contemporary antisemitism exhibits a highly dangerous ideological diversity, complicating efforts to address it effectively. Right-wing variants emphasize racial theories, nationalism, and conspiracy thinking tied to notions of Jewish control over governments and economies. Left-wing manifestations often incorporate antisemitic tropes into critiques of capitalism or Israel, conflating Jewish identity with systemic injustices. Islamist antisemitism combines imported European prejudices with religious objections to Judaism and vehement opposition to Zionism. This ideological breadth allows antisemitism to thrive across multiple contexts, adapting its language and methods to resonate within different political and cultural environments.

The persistence of contemporary antisemitism underscores its ability to evolve in response to societal changes while maintaining its core themes of Jewish “otherness” and alleged influence. Whether expressed through coded language during economic crises, amplified by digital platforms, or embedded within political ideologies, modern antisemitism remains a significant threat to Jewish communities worldwide. For Zionists and supporters of Israel, combating these manifestations is not only a moral obligation but also essential for safeguarding Jewish self-determination against ever-evolving forms of prejudice.

Outlook

This blog post has examined the historical evolution of antisemitism from the aftermath of the 1967 Six-Day War through to its contemporary manifestations in the years leading up to October 7, 2023. By tracing its development through anti-Israel rhetoric, economic conspiracy theories, digital amplification, and ideological diversity, this reflection has highlighted how antisemitism continues to adapt and thrive in modern contexts while maintaining its destructive core themes.

The events of October 7, 2023, would prove to be a pivotal moment in the trajectory of global antisemitism. The Hamas-led terrorist attack on Israel not only triggered an eruption of violence but also unleashed a wave of antisemitic rhetoric and actions worldwide. Ancient prejudices were rapidly re-deployed in political discourse and public spaces, blending traditional antisemitic tropes with contemporary anti-Zionist narratives. Public demonstrations, digital platforms, and institutional responses revealed how deeply entrenched antisemitism remains in contemporary society and how quickly it can escalate during periods of crisis. This moment marked not just a continuation but an alarming intensification of antisemitism’s global reach and impact.

In the next blog post, the focus will shift to analyzing this surge of antisemitism since October 7, 2023. It will explore how centuries-old prejudices resurfaced with renewed intensity in response to geopolitical events, examining their manifestations in public spaces, digital platforms, and political discourse. The final chapter will then reflect on antisemitism’s historical continuity and adaptability, synthesizing these findings into a broader understanding of its enduring presence as one of humanity’s oldest and most enduring forms of hatred.